哪些因素预测德语国家年轻学习者英语阅读和拼写的成就？来自认知和语言方面的证据

This longitudinal study examined which cognitive and linguistic skills predict English as a foreign language (EFL) reading and spelling skills among elementary school children in Germany. A total of 107 learners (Mage = 10.52, SD = 0.64) were assessed at the beginning of Grade 3 on nonverbal intelligence, phonological short-term memory, phonological awareness, working memory, and English grammar and vocabulary. Linear mixed-effects models, with age, gender, and language background as covariates and classes and schools as random effects, predicted six literacy outcomes at the end of Grade 4: re